納瓦霍語
使用現(xiàn)狀
據(jù)“美國社區(qū)調(diào)查”(American Community Survey)在2007年的調(diào)查顯然,納瓦霍語的使用者人數(shù)有170,717人,這使得納瓦霍語成為唯一能在其統(tǒng)計圖表上被獨立表示的北美原住民語言。納瓦霍語多數(shù)的使用者生活于納瓦霍族保留地。有2.9%的納瓦霍語使用者為單語使用者,即其缺乏對英語的認知。四個納瓦霍語使用者比例較高的城鎮(zhèn)區(qū)域(metro- and micropolitan area)分別為法明頓(Farmington, New Mexico,有16.5%的人口使用納瓦霍語)、加路普(Gallup, New Mexico,有12%的人口使用納瓦霍語)、夫拉格斯達夫(Flagstaff, New Mexico,有10.3%的人口使用納瓦霍語)和阿布奎基(Albuquerque,有5.4%的人口使用納瓦霍語)。
在納瓦霍語通行的地區(qū),有相當數(shù)量的雙語浸潤(immersion)學校從事保存與推廣納瓦霍語的工作。
書寫系統(tǒng)與音系
子音
下表以IPA給出納瓦霍語的子音,并于其旁附上該音書寫時使用的記號:
h 這個字母,在納瓦霍語正字法中,被用以表示兩個不同的元音,當它出現(xiàn)在詞干開頭時,它發(fā)作 [x] ,在前綴中或詞干或單詞之結(jié)尾時,它發(fā)作 [h] 。然而,當 [x] 出現(xiàn)在 s 代表的音之后時,它記作 x 而非 h ,以免與 sh 產(chǎn)生混淆(像 násxéés (意即“我正轉(zhuǎn)身”)即一例,不能將此字記作 náshéés ); gh [?] 這個子音在前元音 i 與 e 前記作 y (在此些音前, [?] 顎化,變作 [?] ),在 o 前則記作 w ( [?] 在此音前唇化,變作 [??] ),在 a 前則記作 gh 。出現(xiàn)于單詞開頭的喉塞音 ? 不作表記。
對于 /?/ gh 這個音,其唇化和顎化皆以其書寫系統(tǒng)表記,其中 y 表此音之顎化,而 w 表該音之唇化。此書寫法不分別其他子音的各種變體。
元音
納瓦霍語有四個基本的元音: a 、 e 、 i 與 o 。每個元音都分長短音,也分非鼻音和鼻音:
聲調(diào)
納瓦霍語有“高聲”和“低聲”兩個聲調(diào)。每個音節(jié)預(yù)設(shè)的聲調(diào)為低音,高低兩聲在長元音的混合,可得四種可能性:
以上這些元音的各種特征的混合是可能的,就如 ???? (此表高聲調(diào)之長鼻元音)所表示者一般。
語法
就語言類型學上來講,納瓦霍語是種中心語標記(head-marking)的多式綜合黏著語,唯其許多的詞綴已“縮略”在一起而使之在某方面與屈折語近似。納瓦霍語的基本語序為主詞─受詞─動詞。德內(nèi)語支的語言一般使用前綴,這在基本語序為SOV的語言中是不尋常的(此類語言一般傾向使用后綴)。
納瓦霍語是“動詞重心”的語言(verb-heavy),它有許多的動詞,但名詞的數(shù)量相對較少。除此名詞與動詞外,納瓦霍語亦有代名詞、有著不同功能的附著詞素(clitic)、指示詞、數(shù)詞、后置詞、副詞和連接詞等不同的詞類存在。哈利·霍衣哲(Harry Hoijer)將名詞和動詞以外的所有詞,都歸入一個他稱之為“質(zhì)詞”(particle)的詞類中。納瓦霍語沒有與英語形容詞相對應(yīng)的詞類,其形容詞的功能以動詞取代。
亦見
南德內(nèi)語支
參考文獻
教育方面
Blair, Robert W.; Simmons, Leon; & Witherspoon, Gary.(1969). Navaho Basic Course . Brigham Young University Printing Services.
Goossen, Irvy W.(1967). Navajo made easier: A course in conversational Navajo . Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Press.
Goossen, Irvy W.(1995). Diné bizaad: Speak, read, write Navajo . Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf. ISBN 0-9644189-1-6
Goossen, Irvy W.(1997). Diné bizaad: Sprechen, Lesen und Schreiben Sie Navajo . Loder, P. B.(transl.). Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf.
Haile, Berard.(1941–1948). Learning Navaho ,(Vols. 1–4). St. Michaels, AZ: St. Michael"s Mission.
Platero, Paul R.(1986). Diné bizaad bee naadzo: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults . Farmington, NM: Navajo Preparatory School.
Platero, Paul R.; Legah, Lorene; & Platero, Linda S.(1985). Diné bizaad bee na?adzo: A Navajo language literacy and grammar text . Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
Tapahonso, Luci, & Schick, Eleanor.(1995). Navajo ABC: A Diné alphabet book . New York: Macmillan Books for Young Readers. ISBN 0-689-80316-8
Witherspoon, Gary.(1985). Diné Bizaad Bóhoo?aah for secondary schools, colleges, and adults . Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
Witherspoon, Gary.(1986). Diné Bizaad Bóhoo?aah I: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults . Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
Wilson, Alan.(1969). Breakthrough Navajo: An introductory course . Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.
Wilson, Alan.(1970). Laughter, the Navajo way . Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico at Gallup.
Wilson, Alan.(1978). Speak Navajo: An intermediate text in communication . Gallup, NM: University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.
Wilson, Garth A.(1995). Conversational Navajo workbook: An introductory course for non-native speakers. Blanding, UT: Conversational Navajo Publications. ISBN 0-938717-54-5.
Yazzie, Evangeline Parsons, and Margaret Speas (2008). Diné Bizaad Bínáhoo"aah: Rediscovering the Navajo Language . Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf, Inc. ISBN 978-1-893354-73-9
語言學方面和其他參考資料
Akmajian, Adrian; & Anderson, Stephen.(1970). On the use of the fourth person in Navajo, or Navajo made harder. International Journal of American Linguistics , 36 (1), 1–8.
Creamer, Mary Helen.(1974). Ranking in Navajo nouns. Navajo Language Review , 1 , 29–38.
Faltz, Leonard M.(1998). The Navajo verb: A grammar for students and scholars . Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1901-7(hb), ISBN 0-8263-1902-5(pbk)
Frishberg, Nancy.(1972). Navajo object markers and the great chain of being. In J. Kimball(Ed.), Syntax and semantics (Vol. 1, p.259–266). New York: Seminar Press.
Grimes, Barbara F.(Ed.)。(2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world,(14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9.(Online edition:/, accessed on November 19, 2004)。
Hale, Kenneth L.(1973). A note on subject–object inversion in Navajo. In B. B. Kachru, R. B. Lees, Y. Malkiel, A. Pietrangeli, & S. Saporta(Eds.), Issues in linguistics: Papers in honor of Henry and Renée Kahane (p.300–309). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Navaho phonology . University of New Mexico publications in anthropology,(No. 1)。
Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics , 11 (1), 13–23.
Hoijer, Harry.(1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 11 (4), 193–203.
Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics , 12 (1), 1–13.
Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics , 12 (2), 51–59.
Hoijer, Harry.(1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 14 (4), 247–259.
Hoijer, Harry.(1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. International Journal of American Linguistics , 15 (1), 12–22.
Hoijer, Harry.(1970). A Navajo lexicon . University of California Publications in Linguistics(No. 78). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Kari, James.(1975). The disjunct boundary in the Navajo and Tanaina verb prefix complexes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 41 , 330–345.
Kari, James.(1976). Navajo verb prefix phonology. Garland Publishing Co.
McDonough, Joyce.(2003). The Navajo sound system . Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-1351-5(hb); ISBN 1-4020-1352-3(pbk)
Reichard, Gladys A.(1951). Navaho grammar . Publications of the American Ethnological Society(Vol. 21). New York: J. J. Augustin.
Sapir, Edward.(1932). Two Navaho puns. Language , 8 (3), 217-220.
Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1942). Navaho texts . William Dwight Whitney series, Linguistic Society of America.
Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1967). Phonology and morphology of the Navaho language . Berkeley: University of California Press.
Speas, Margaret.(1990). Phrase structure in natural language . Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-0755-0
Wall, C. Leon, & Morgan, William.(1994). Navajo-English dictionary . New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0247-4.(Originally published [1958] by U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Branch of Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs)。
Webster, Anthony K.(2004). Coyote Poems: Navajo Poetry, Intertextuality, and Language Choice. American Indian Culture and Research Journal , 28 , 69-91.
Webster, Anthony K.(2006). "ALk"idaa" Ma"ii Jooldlosh, Jini": Poetic Devices in Navajo Oral and Written Poetry. Anthropological Linguistics , 48(3) , 233-265.
Webster, Anthony K.(2009). Explorations in Navajo Poetry and Poetics . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
Witherspoon, Gary.(1971). Navajo categories of objects at rest. American Anthropologist , 73 , 110-127.
Witherspoon, Gary.(1977). Language and art in the Navajo universe . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08966-8; ISBN 0-472-08965-X
Yazzie, Sheldon A.(2005). Navajo for Beginners and Elementary Students . Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Press.
Young, Robert W.(2000). The Navajo verb system: An overview . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2172-0(hb); ISBN 0-8263-2176-3(pbk)
Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr.(1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary (rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1
Young, Robert W.; Morgan, William; & Midgette, Sally.(1992). Analytical lexicon of Navajo . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1356-6; ISBN 0825313566
外部鏈接
Hózh?? Náhásdl????? - Language of the Holy People(有著Flash、影音和納瓦霍語學習幫助的納瓦霍語網(wǎng)站), gomyson.com
Some English - Diné Dictionary (pronunciations), blackmesais.org
Contrasts between Navajo consonants(Peter Ladefoged的聲音檔). humnet.ucla.edu
Navajo Language & Bilingual Links(圣胡安學區(qū)(San Juan school district)之資料). sanjuan.k12.ut.us
Navajo Language Academy, navajolanguageacademy.org
Tuning in to Navajo: The Role of Radio in Native Language Maintenance, jan.ucc.nau.edu
An Initial Exploration of the Navajo Nation"s Language and Culture Initiative, jan.ucc.nau.edu
Bá?ólta?í Adoodlee?gi Bína?niltingo Bi? Haz???(Center for Diné Teacher Education), dinecollege.edu
Languagegeek Unicode fonts and Navajo keyboard layouts, languagegeek.com
Navajo fonts, dinecollege.edu
The Navajo Language, library.thinkquest.org
Navajo language (Encyclopedia of North American Indians), college.hmco.com
Inventory of the Robert W. Young Papers, 1860-1992(bulk 1823-1980), libxml.unm.edu
Reflections on Navajo Poetry, ou.edu
語言學方面之資料
Navajo reflections of a general theory of lexical argument structure(Ken Hale & Paul Platero), museunacional.ufrj.br
Remarks on the syntax of the Navajo verb part I: Preliminary observations on the structure of the verb(Ken Hale), museunacional.ufrj.br
The Navajo Prolongative and Lexical Structure(Carlotta Smith), cc.utexas.edu
A Computational Analysis of Navajo Verb Stems(David Eddington & Jordan Lachler), linguistics.byu.edu
Grammaticization of Tense in Navajo: The Evolution of nt’éé(Chee, Ashworth, Buescher & Kubacki), linguistics.ucsb.edu
A methodology for the investigation of speaker’s knowledge of structure in Athabaskan(Joyce McDonough & Rachel Sussman), urresearch.rochester.edu
How to use Young and Morgan’s The Navajo Language(Joyce McDonough), bcs.rochester.edu
Time in Navajo: Direct and Indirect Interpretation(Carlota S. Smith, Ellavina T. Perkins, Theodore B. Fernald), cc.utexas.edu
OLAC Resources in and about the Navajo language
免責聲明:以上內(nèi)容版權(quán)歸原作者所有,如有侵犯您的原創(chuàng)版權(quán)請告知,我們將盡快刪除相關(guān)內(nèi)容。感謝每一位辛勤著寫的作者,感謝每一位的分享。
- 有價值
- 一般般
- 沒價值
{{item.userName}} 舉報
{{item.time}} {{item.replyListShow ? '收起' : '展開'}}評論 {{curReplyId == item.id ? '取消回復(fù)' : '回復(fù)'}}
{{_reply.userName}} 舉報
{{_reply.time}}