馬
特征
馬耳小而直立,面部長(zhǎng);額、頸上有長(zhǎng)鬃,尾有長(zhǎng)毛,四肢強(qiáng)健,內(nèi)側(cè)有附蟬,第三趾最發(fā)達(dá),趾端有馬蹄,其余各趾退化;毛色復(fù)雜,有騮、栗、青、黑等。
演化
馬的化石非常豐富,所以馬的進(jìn)化過(guò)程也被研究得非常詳細(xì)。馬的進(jìn)化常常被用來(lái)作為進(jìn)化的例子。
最早的馬叫始祖馬,出現(xiàn)于五千七百萬(wàn)年前的北美洲,時(shí)值始新世。始祖馬個(gè)頭只有狗那么大,弓著背,四肢長(zhǎng)著多個(gè)趾頭(前腳四只趾頭,后腳三個(gè))。由始祖馬分化出了林林總總的眾多支系。有的支系越來(lái)越大,越來(lái)越擅長(zhǎng)奔跑,也有的支系向著小型化發(fā)展。到中新世的時(shí)候以三趾馬為代表的馬類(lèi)動(dòng)物成了一類(lèi)十分繁盛的動(dòng)物群,是地層古生物中常見(jiàn)的化石動(dòng)物,常常作為地質(zhì)年代斷定的重要依據(jù)。
現(xiàn)代馬的最直接祖先是出現(xiàn)于一千二百萬(wàn)年前晚中新世的恐馬,而現(xiàn)代馬則在四百萬(wàn)年前的上新世出現(xiàn)。北美洲一直是馬和馬類(lèi)動(dòng)物起源和演化中心。馬從這里起源并向四周輻射。馬通過(guò)冰川時(shí)期形成的白令陸橋擴(kuò)散到歐亞大陸,在上新世進(jìn)入非洲,成為非洲大陸動(dòng)物群的重要一員。馬也通過(guò)中美地峽向南美洲擴(kuò)撒。最晚到大約兩萬(wàn)年前,馬在北美洲徹底滅絕,南美的馬滅絕得更早。原因現(xiàn)在仍是謎。有人認(rèn)為跟美洲印第安人過(guò)度捕獵有關(guān)。從此,在近五千六百多年的時(shí)間里作為馬的發(fā)源地的北美洲第一次沒(méi)有了馬的存在,一直到公元十六世紀(jì)西班牙人再一次把馬帶回了美洲。Discovery制作的一期關(guān)于馬的節(jié)目里說(shuō)道“當(dāng)印第安人第一次見(jiàn)到西班牙人帶來(lái)的馬的時(shí)候,感覺(jué)像是見(jiàn)到了久別重逢的老朋友”。
現(xiàn)代飼養(yǎng)的馬是由歐洲野馬馴化而來(lái)的。野生的馬已經(jīng)滅絕?,F(xiàn)存的普氏野馬不是家馬的祖先。馬的進(jìn)化歷程充滿了艱難險(xiǎn)阻。馬科動(dòng)物曾經(jīng)是如此繁盛,前后進(jìn)化出幾十個(gè)屬,到最后卻只有一個(gè)屬六七種殘存至今。馬的興衰歷程實(shí)際上是奇蹄動(dòng)物的興衰歷程,奇蹄動(dòng)物在現(xiàn)代普遍呈衰落的趨勢(shì)。
直到工業(yè)革命蒸汽機(jī)出現(xiàn)以前,一直是主要的拉車(chē)動(dòng)力,以至后來(lái)“馬力”成了衡量機(jī)器功率的單位。在山區(qū)無(wú)法行車(chē)的路上,馬至今仍是主要的運(yùn)載工具。
在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中最早也是拉戰(zhàn)車(chē),由游牧民族首先發(fā)明騎乘,古希臘與古羅馬已有騎兵。中國(guó)民族直到戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期趙武靈王胡服騎射才開(kāi)始出現(xiàn)騎兵。馬鞍也是游牧民族發(fā)明的,后來(lái)經(jīng)過(guò)不斷的改進(jìn);馬鐙的發(fā)明有多種說(shuō)法,包括斯基泰人發(fā)明說(shuō),印度人發(fā)明說(shuō),中國(guó)人發(fā)明說(shuō)等,而在中國(guó)流傳的馬鐙的發(fā)明說(shuō)法則是中國(guó)人在漢朝發(fā)明的,一開(kāi)始只是一個(gè),為便于上馬,后來(lái)發(fā)展為一邊一個(gè),波斯人稱為“中國(guó)鞋”,后來(lái)才傳到歐洲。直到進(jìn)入20世紀(jì)之后,由于各種戰(zhàn)車(chē)、直升機(jī)的出現(xiàn)和普及,騎兵才開(kāi)始退出戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)?,F(xiàn)今騎乘多用于賽馬運(yùn)動(dòng),有的大城市巡警也還用馬。
馬也可以作為乳用和肉用,教律法禁止食用馬肉(回族、阿拉伯人與波斯人,但人不禁止),公元732年教皇格列高利三世下令禁止基督教徒食用馬肉,但后來(lái)作用不大,現(xiàn)在法國(guó)人、意大利人都食用馬肉,日本人認(rèn)為馬肉是營(yíng)養(yǎng)豐富的肉食。在二戰(zhàn)期間,美國(guó)允許肉店供應(yīng)馬肉以彌補(bǔ)牛肉供應(yīng)不足,但二戰(zhàn)結(jié)束后,在美國(guó)西部牧場(chǎng)主的壓力下,又禁止供應(yīng)馬肉。馬乳一直是游牧民族的食品,尤其適合釀造“馬奶酒”。
隨著馬的使用功能淡化,20世紀(jì)后半期,許多國(guó)家培育出各種小馬,作為寵物或?qū)び猛尽,F(xiàn)在經(jīng)過(guò)幾千年人的培育,馬的種類(lèi)繁多,從高達(dá)2米到只有0.56米,體形各異。
詞匯
量詞單位: 匹
西班牙圣塞巴斯蒂安東南卞蒂斯山上的馬
希臘神話中的珀伽索斯
馬的辭匯:
兒馬,公馬
騾,驢和馬雜交的后代
駒,小馬
騸,去勢(shì)喪失生育能力的馬
驃,黃色的馬
騮,黑鬃黑尾的紅色馬
劣,性情暴躁不容易駕御的馬
驊,棗紅色的馬
驪,黑色的馬
?,黑嘴的黃色馬
騏,青黑色的馬
騅,黑色白蹄的馬
驄,青白相間,類(lèi)似蘭色的馬
龍,高大的馬
驤,后右蹄白色的馬
骍,赤色的馬和牛,亦泛指赤色
駑,劣馬、能力低劣的馬。
文化
生肖
香港九龍寨城公園十二生肖像之馬
在中國(guó)傳統(tǒng)的十二生肖中排名第七位,對(duì)應(yīng)的地支是午。
姓氏
馬姓是常見(jiàn)的中文姓氏之一。除了漢族以外,其他民族也有不少馬姓人士。馬姓是回族的大姓之一,是由穆罕默德姓漢化而來(lái)(也有人認(rèn)為是由法蒂瑪轉(zhuǎn)化而來(lái)),云南回族幾乎清一色姓馬。
畫(huà)馬藝術(shù)
馬一直以來(lái)被視為力與美的結(jié)合,不單是擔(dān)任騎乘或負(fù)重的工作,阿拉伯人以馬為的恩賜,值得人的崇拜與愛(ài)護(hù)。畫(huà)馬藝術(shù)更是歷久不衰,屹立不搖。
商標(biāo)或標(biāo)志
跑車(chē)名牌法拉利、保時(shí)捷等的廠徽是一匹躍起的駿馬。福特汽車(chē)公司所推出的福特野馬跑車(chē)則是一匹奔跑的駿馬。
傳說(shuō)中的名馬
赤兔馬、的盧馬、絕影、爪黃飛電、松風(fēng)、白龍馬、昭陵六駿
參見(jiàn)
馬步
馬力
名駒
賽馬
馬術(shù)
馬奶酒
始祖馬
汗血馬
白龍馬
赤兔馬
馬匹毛色
昭陵六駿
的驢馬
青銅奔馬
蒙古馬
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